Kant’s formula for autonomy is thus opposed to utilitarianism, the view that actions are right or wrong by virtue of their consequences. Thereby, its actions obtain an ethical dignity or moral purity that approximates the sublimity of what Kant called the “kingdom of ends”: a noumenal realm of pure morality, unaffected by the vagaries of experience. Thus, Kant’s practical philosophy is beset by the antinomy (contradiction) between freedom and necessity: human beings are inwardly free but outwardly subject to the laws of causality. The fact that space and time are forms of possible experience, rather than generalizations derived from experience, explains how the judgments of geometry, for example, can be both empirical (about experience) and knowable a priori. Whereas utilitarian moral theories suggest that morally right actions are properly motivated by desires or interests—e.g., to maximize consequences that are good, such as pleasure or happiness—Kant’s brand of moral rigorism is predicated on reason alone. Once one tries to act freely in a phenomenal world dominated by the principle of causality, or to act morally in a world in which human action is always motivated by interests, “rational” or “free” outcomes cannot be guaranteed. The term continental philosophy was adopted by professional philosophers in England after World War II to describe the various schools and movements then prominent in continental Europe and to distinguish them from a set of loosely related approaches, commonly known as analytic philosophy, that had been prevalent from the early 20th century in England and later in the United States and other English … This general approach became characteristic of later German idealism and has exerted an enormous influence on continental philosophy in the 19th and 20th centuries. Hume, in A Treatise of Human Nature (1739–40), rejected the reality of cause and effect as ordinarily conceived, arguing that belief in particular causal connections could not be justified rationally but could be explained psychologically as the product of mere “habit” and the “association of ideas.” In so doing he potentially undermined the rational foundations not only of beliefs about things not immediately present in space or time but of all scientific knowledge (see induction, problem of). It is a general term for those philosophical schools and movements not included under the label Analytic Philosophy, which was the other, largely Anglophone, main philosophical tradition of the period. Although many consider that the distinction between Continental and Analytic Philosophy is misleading or even worthless, some common "Continental" themes can be identified. In these works his central concern was human freedom, or the autonomy of the will, just as the autonomy of reason had been the focus of the first critique (see free will). Continental philosophy, series of Western philosophical schools and movements associated primarily with the countries of the western European continent, especially Germany and France. Against the champions of determinism, Kant insisted on the autonomous capacities of the human will: by universalizing one’s maxims (or reasons) for action in accordance with the categorical imperative—“Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law”—one acts freely, or autonomously. Richard Wolin is an intellectual historian. Updates? Berkeley argued ingeniously that esse est percipi (aut percipere), “to be is to be perceived (or to perceive)”—everything real is either an idea or a mind (see idealism). By following universal imperatives, the will escapes the contingencies and determinism of the phenomenal or empirical realm. The immediate problem for Kant was to reconcile the idea of freedom with the evident causal determinism operative in the phenomenal world, a determinism that the first critique itself had endorsed. Continental philosophy is a set of 19th- and 20th-century philosophical traditions from mainland Europe. In his Critique of Pure Reason (1781; 1787), Kant presciently observed that “the critical path alone is open,” meaning that any approach to the problem of knowledge that failed to respect the limitations that he had laid down risked falling into the metaphysical dogmatism of old. The philosophy of German idealism arose to challenge the Enlightenment’s skeptical, materialist, empiricist, and antimetaphysical worldview. Kant’s moral philosophy, as elaborated in the Critique of Practical Reason (1788) and the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), also proved extremely influential. And it tackles these questions by approaching them through intellectual history and with deep reflection on … For the dogmatists, conversely, Kant’s supposed defense of the powers of reason ceded far too much ground to the antimetaphysical camp. Continental Philosophy, then, is a catch-all label incorporating such Continental European-based schools as German Idealism, Kantianism, Hegelianism, Romanticism, Phenomenology, Existentialism, Marxism, Deconstructionism, Structuralism, Post-Structuralism, Hermeneutics, French Feminism, and the Critical Theory of the Frankfurt School. Both philosophers questioned the commonplace assumptions that there is a “reality” distinct from the ideas or perceptions given in experience and that it is within the power of human reason to discern that reality’s true nature. The problem of knowledge, according to Kant, is to explain how some judgments about the world can be necessarily true and therefore knowable “a priori,” or independently of experience (see a posteriori knowledge). Richard Rorty is one of the most celebrated (and controversial) examples of this, but others have opened themselves to ideas once thought to be negligible by denizens of mainstream philosophy departments. Immanuel Kant, pencil portrait by Hans Veit Schnoor von Carolsfeld (1764–1841). Continental Philosophy refers to a set of traditions of 19th and 20th Century philosophy in mainland Europe. Continental philosophy includes German idealism, phenomenology, existentialism (and its antecedents, such as the thought of Kierkegaard and Nietzsche), hermeneutics, structuralism, post-structuralism, decon… The forceful skepticism to which they contributed, which became one of the most powerful philosophical currents of the Enlightenment, treated the scope of human knowledge as severely limited and the powers traditionally attributed to human reason—especially during the era of great metaphysical system building in the 17th century—as little more than dogmatic pretensions.

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